Architecture ============ .. raw:: html .. tip:: For a deeper understanding, we recommend reading our article on the CNCF blog post titled `Recommended Architectures for PostgreSQL in Kubernetes `_ , which provides valuable insights into best practices and design considerations for PostgreSQL deployments in Kubernetes. 　 This documentation page provides an overview of the key architectural considerations for implementing a robust business continuity strategy when deploying PostgreSQL in Kubernetes. These considerations include: - \*\* :ref:`Multi-availability zone Kubernetes clusters ` vs.  :ref:`Single availability zone Kubernetes clusters ` \*\*: Evaluating the differences between deploying in stretched clusters (across 3 or more availability zones) versus non-stretched clusters (within a single availability zone). - :ref:`Reserving nodes for PostgreSQL workloads ` : Isolating PostgreSQL workloads by dedicating specific worker nodes to ``postgres`` tasks, ensuring optimal performance and minimizing interference from other workloads. - :ref:`PostgreSQL architecture ` : Designing effective PostgreSQL deployments within a single Kubernetes cluster to meet high availability and performance requirements. - :ref:`Deployments across Kubernetes clusters ` : Planning and implementing PostgreSQL architectures that span multiple Kubernetes clusters to provide comprehensive disaster recovery capabilities. Synchronizing the state ----------------------- PostgreSQL is a database management system and, as such, it needs to be treated as a **stateful workload** in Kubernetes. While stateless applications mainly use traffic redirection to achieve High Availability (HA) and Disaster Recovery (DR), in the case of a database, state must be replicated in multiple locations, preferably in a continuous and instantaneous way, by adopting either of the following two strategies: - *storage-level replication*, normally persistent volumes - *application-level replication*, in this specific case PostgreSQL CloudNativePG relies on application-level replication, for a simple reason: the PostgreSQL database management system comes with robust and reliable built-in **physical replication** capabilities based on **Write Ahead Log (WAL) shipping**, which have been used in production by millions of users all over the world for over a decade. PostgreSQL supports both asynchronous and synchronous streaming replication over the network, as well as asynchronous file-based log shipping (normally used as a fallback option, for example, to store WAL files in an object store). Replicas are usually called *standby servers* and can also be used for read-only workloads, thanks to the *Hot Standby* feature. .. Note:: **We recommend against storage-level replication with PostgreSQL**, although CloudNativePG allows you to adopt that strategy. For more information, please refer to the talk given by Chris Milsted and Gabriele Bartolini at KubeCon NA 2022 entitled `Data On Kubernetes, Deploying And Running PostgreSQL And Patterns For Databases In a Kubernetes Cluster `_ where this topic was covered in detail. 　 Kubernetes architecture ----------------------- Kubernetes natively provides the possibility to span separate physical locations - also known as data centers, failure zones, or more frequently **availability zones** - connected to each other via redundant, low-latency, private network connectivity. Being a distributed system, the recommended minimum number of availability zones for a Kubernetes cluster is three (3), in order to make the control plane resilient to the failure of a single zone. For details, please refer to `Running in multiple zones `_ . This means that **each data center is active at any time** and can run workloads simultaneously. .. Note:: Most of the public Cloud Providers' managed Kubernetes services already provide 3 or more availability zones in each region. 　 Multi-availability zone Kubernetes clusters ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ The multi-availability zone Kubernetes architecture with three (3) or more zones is the one that we recommend for PostgreSQL usage. This scenario is typical of Kubernetes services managed by Cloud Providers. .. figure:: /images/k8s-architecture-3-az.png :width: 70% :alt: Kubernetes cluster spanning over 3 independent data centers Kubernetes cluster spanning over 3 independent data centers Such an architecture enables the CloudNativePG operator to control the full lifecycle of a ``Cluster`` resource across the zones within a single Kubernetes cluster, by treating all the availability zones as active: this includes, among other operations, :ref:`Scheduling ` the workloads in a declarative manner (based on affinity rules, tolerations and node selectors), automated failover, self-healing, and updates. All will work seamlessly across the zones in a single Kubernetes cluster. Please refer to the :ref:`PostgreSQL architecture ` section below for details on how you can design your PostgreSQL clusters within the same Kubernetes cluster through shared-nothing deployments at the storage, worker node, and availability zone levels. Additionally, you can leverage :ref:`Deployments across Kubernetes clusters ` to deploy distributed PostgreSQL topologies hosting “passive” :ref:`PostgreSQL replica clusters ` in different regions and managing them via declarative configuration. This setup is ideal for disaster recovery (DR), read-only operations, or cross-region availability. .. Note:: Each operator deployment can only manage operations within its local Kubernetes cluster. For operations across Kubernetes clusters, such as controlled switchover or unexpected failover, coordination must be handled manually (through GitOps, for example) or by using a higher-level cluster management tool. 　 .. figure:: /images/k8s-architecture-multi.png :width: 70% :alt: Example of a multiple Kubernetes cluster architecture distributed over 3 regions each with 3 independent data centers Example of a multiple Kubernetes cluster architecture distributed over 3 regions each with 3 independent data centers Single availability zone Kubernetes clusters ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ If your Kubernetes cluster has only one availability zone, CloudNativePG still provides you with a lot of features to improve HA and DR outcomes for your PostgreSQL databases, pushing the single point of failure (SPoF) to the level of the zone as much as possible - i.e. the zone must have an outage before your CloudNativePG clusters suffer a failure. This scenario is typical of self-managed on-premise Kubernetes clusters, where only one data center is available. Single availability zone Kubernetes clusters are the only viable option when only **two data centers** are available within reach of a low-latency connection (typically in the same metropolitan area). Having only two zones prevents the creation of a multi-availability zone Kubernetes cluster, which requires a minimum of three zones. As a result, users must create two separate Kubernetes clusters in an active/passive configuration, with the second cluster primarily used for Disaster Recovery (see the :ref:`replica cluster feature ` ). .. figure:: /images/k8s-architecture-2-az.png :width: 70% :alt: Example of a Kubernetes architecture with only 2 data centers Example of a Kubernetes architecture with only 2 data centers .. tip:: If you are at an early stage of your Kubernetes journey, please share this document with your infrastructure team. The two data centers setup might be simply the result of a "lift-and-shift" transition to Kubernetes from a traditional bare-metal or VM based infrastructure, and the benefits that Kubernetes offers in a 3+ zone scenario might not have been known, or addressed at the time the infrastructure architecture was designed. Ultimately, a third physical location connected to the other two might represent a valid option to consider for organization, as it reduces the overall costs of the infrastructure by moving the day-to-day complexity from the application level down to the physical infrastructure level. 　 Please refer to the :ref:`PostgreSQL architecture ` section below for details on how you can design your PostgreSQL clusters within your single availability zone Kubernetes cluster through shared-nothing deployments at the storage and worker node levels only. For HA, in such a scenario it becomes even more important that the PostgreSQL instances be located on different worker nodes and do not share the same storage. For DR, you can push the SPoF above the single zone, by using additional :ref:`Deployments across Kubernetes clusters ` to define a distributed topology hosting “passive” :ref:`PostgreSQL replica clusters ` . As with other Kubernetes workloads in this scenario, promotion of a Kubernetes cluster as primary must be done manually. Through the :ref:`replica cluster feature ` , you can define a distributed PostgreSQL topology and coordinate a controlled switchover between data centers by first demoting the primary cluster and then promoting the replica cluster, without the need to re-clone the former primary. While failover is now fully declarative, automated failover across Kubernetes clusters is not within CloudNativePG’s scope, as the operator can only function within a single Kubernetes cluster. .. Note:: CloudNativePG provides all the necessary primitives and probes to coordinate PostgreSQL active/passive topologies across different Kubernetes clusters through a higher-level operator or management tool. 　 Reserving nodes for PostgreSQL workloads ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Whether you’re operating in a multi-availability zone environment or, more critically, within a single availability zone, we strongly recommend isolating PostgreSQL workloads by dedicating specific worker nodes exclusively to ``postgres`` in production. A Kubernetes worker node dedicated to running PostgreSQL workloads is referred to as a **Postgres node** or ``postgres`` node. This approach ensures optimal performance and resource allocation for your database operations. .. tip:: As a general rule of thumb, deploy Postgres nodes in multiples of three—ideally with one node per availability zone. Three nodes is an optimal number because it ensures that a PostgreSQL cluster with three instances (one primary and two standby replicas) is distributed across different nodes, enhancing fault tolerance and availability. 　 In Kubernetes, this can be achieved using node labels and taints in a declarative manner, aligning with Infrastructure as Code (IaC) practices: labels ensure that a node is capable of running ``postgres`` workloads, while taints help prevent any non-``postgres`` workloads from being scheduled on that node. .. Note:: This methodology is the most straightforward way to ensure that PostgreSQL workloads are isolated from other workloads in terms of both computing resources and, when using locally attached disks, storage. While different PostgreSQL clusters may share the same node, you can take this a step further by using labels and taints to ensure that a node is dedicated to a single instance of a specific `Cluster` . 　 Proposed node label ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ CloudNativePG recommends using the ``node-role.kubernetes.io/postgres`` label. Since this is a reserved label (``*.kubernetes.io`` ), it can only be applied after a worker node is created. To assign the ``postgres`` label to a node, use the following command: .. code:: sh kubectl label node node-role.kubernetes.io/postgres= To ensure that a ``Cluster`` resource is scheduled on a ``postgres`` node, you must correctly configure the ``.spec.affinity.nodeSelector`` stanza in your manifests. Here’s an example: .. code:: yaml spec: # affinity: # nodeSelector: node-role.kubernetes.io/postgres: "" Proposed node taint ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ CloudNativePG recommends using the ``node-role.kubernetes.io/postgres`` taint. To assign the ``postgres`` taint to a node, use the following command: .. code:: sh kubectl taint node node-role.kubernetes.io/postgres=:NoSchedule To ensure that a ``Cluster`` resource is scheduled on a node with a ``postgres`` taint, you must correctly configure the ``.spec.affinity.tolerations`` stanza in your manifests. Here’s an example: .. code:: yaml spec: # affinity: # tolerations: - key: node-role.kubernetes.io/postgres operator: Exists effect: NoSchedule PostgreSQL architecture ----------------------- CloudNativePG supports clusters based on asynchronous and synchronous streaming replication to manage multiple hot standby replicas within the same Kubernetes cluster, with the following specifications: - One primary, with optional multiple hot standby replicas for HA - Available services for applications: \* ``-rw`` : applications connect only to the primary instance of the cluster \* ``-ro`` : applications connect only to hot standby replicas for read-only-workloads (optional) \* ``-r`` : applications connect to any of the instances for read-only workloads (optional) - Shared-nothing architecture recommended for better resilience of the PostgreSQL cluster: \* PostgreSQL instances should reside on different Kubernetes worker nodes and share only the network - as a result, instances should not share the storage and preferably use local volumes attached to the node they run on \* PostgreSQL instances should reside in different availability zones within the same Kubernetes cluster / region .. Note:: You can configure the above services through the `managed.services` section in the `Cluster` configuration. This can be done by reducing the number of services and selecting the type (default is `ClusterIP` ). For more details, please refer to the :ref:`Service management ` below. 　 The below diagram provides a simplistic view of the recommended shared-nothing architecture for a PostgreSQL cluster spanning across 3 different availability zones, running on separate nodes, each with dedicated local storage for PostgreSQL data. .. figure:: /images/k8s-pg-architecture.png :width: 70% :alt: Bird-eye view of the recommended shared nothing architecture for PostgreSQL in Kubernetes Bird-eye view of the recommended shared nothing architecture for PostgreSQL in Kubernetes CloudNativePG automatically takes care of updating the above services if the topology of the cluster changes. For example, in case of failover, it automatically updates the ``-rw`` service to point to the promoted primary, making sure that traffic from the applications is seamlessly redirected. .. Note:: Please refer to the :ref:`About the replication user ` for more information about how CloudNativePG relies on PostgreSQL replication, including synchronous settings. 　 .. Note:: Please refer to the :ref:`Connecting from an application ` for information about how to connect to CloudNativePG from a stateless application within the same Kubernetes cluster. 　 .. Note:: Please refer to the :ref:`Connection Pooling ` for information about how to take advantage of PgBouncer as a connection pooler, and create an access layer between your applications and the PostgreSQL clusters. 　 Read-write workloads ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Applications can decide to connect to the PostgreSQL instance elected as *current primary* by the Kubernetes operator, as depicted in the following diagram: .. figure:: /images/architecture-rw.png :width: 70% :alt: Applications writing to the single primary Applications writing to the single primary Applications can use the ``-rw`` suffix service. In case of temporary or permanent unavailability of the primary, for High Availability purposes CloudNativePG will trigger a failover, pointing the ``-rw`` service to another instance of the cluster. Read-only workloads ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ .. Note:: Applications must be aware of the limitations that `Hot Standby `_ presents and familiar with the way PostgreSQL operates when dealing with these workloads. 　 Applications can access hot standby replicas through the ``-ro`` service made available by the operator. This service enables the application to offload read-only queries from the primary node. The following diagram shows the architecture: .. figure:: /images/architecture-read-only.png :width: 70% :alt: Applications reading from hot standby replicas in round robin Applications reading from hot standby replicas in round robin Applications can also access any PostgreSQL instance through the ``-r`` service. Deployments across Kubernetes clusters -------------------------------------- .. Note:: CloudNativePG supports deploying PostgreSQL across multiple Kubernetes clusters through a feature that allows you to define a distributed PostgreSQL topology using replica clusters, as described in this section. 　 In a distributed PostgreSQL cluster there can only be a single PostgreSQL instance acting as a primary at all times. This means that applications can only write inside a single Kubernetes cluster, at any time. However, for business continuity objectives it is fundamental to: - reduce global **recovery point objectives** ( :ref:`PgBouncerPoolMode ` ) by storing PostgreSQL backup data in multiple locations, regions and possibly using different providers (Disaster Recovery) - reduce global **recovery time objectives** ( :ref:`Backup Frequency and RTO ` ) by taking advantage of PostgreSQL replication beyond the primary Kubernetes cluster (High Availability) In order to address the above concerns, CloudNativePG introduces the concept of a PostgreSQL Topology that is distributed across different Kubernetes clusters and is made up of a primary PostgreSQL cluster and one or more PostgreSQL replica clusters. This feature is called **distributed PostgreSQL topology with replica clusters**, and it enables multi-cluster deployments in private, public, hybrid, and multi-cloud contexts. A replica cluster is a separate ``Cluster`` resource that is in continuous recovery, replicating from another source, either via WAL shipping from a WAL archive or via streaming replication from a primary or a standby (cascading). The diagram below depicts a PostgreSQL cluster spanning over two different Kubernetes clusters, where the primary cluster is in the first Kubernetes cluster and the replica cluster is in the second. The second Kubernetes cluster acts as the company’s disaster recovery cluster, ready to be activated in case of disaster and unavailability of the first one. .. figure:: /images/multi-cluster.png :width: 70% :alt: An example of multi-cluster deployment with a primary and a replica cluster An example of multi-cluster deployment with a primary and a replica cluster A replica cluster can have the same architecture as the primary cluster. Instead of a primary instance, a replica cluster has a **designated primary** instance, which is a standby server with an arbitrary number of cascading standby servers in streaming replication (symmetric architecture). The designated primary can be promoted at any time, transforming the replica cluster into a primary cluster capable of accepting write connections. This is typically triggered by: - **Human decision:** You choose to make the other PostgreSQL cluster (or the entire Kubernetes cluster) the primary. To avoid data loss and ensure that the former primary can follow without being re-cloned (especially with large data sets), you first demote the current primary, then promote the designated primary using the API provided by CloudNativePG. - **Unexpected failure:** If the entire Kubernetes cluster fails, you might experience data loss, but you need to fail over to the other Kubernetes cluster by promoting the PostgreSQL replica cluster. .. Warning:: CloudNativePG cannot perform any cross-cluster automated failover, as it does not have authority beyond a single Kubernetes cluster. Such operations must be performed manually or delegated to a multi-cluster/federated cluster-aware authority. 　 .. Note:: CloudNativePG allows you to control the distributed topology via declarative configuration, enabling you to automate these procedures as part of your Infrastructure as Code (IaC) process, including GitOps. 　 In the example above, the designated primary receives WAL updates via streaming replication (``primary_conninfo`` ). As a fallback, it can retrieve WAL segments from an object store using file-based WAL shipping—for instance, with the Barman Cloud plugin through ``restore_command`` and ``barman-cloud-wal-restore`` . CloudNativePG allows you to define topologies with multiple replica clusters. You can also define replica clusters with a lower number of replicas, and then increase this number when the cluster is promoted to primary. .. Note:: Please refer to the :ref:`Replica Clusters ` for more detailed information on how physical replica clusters operate and how to define a distributed topology with read-only clusters across different Kubernetes clusters. This approach can significantly enhance your global disaster recovery and high availability (HA) strategy.